(Extracted from “A Compendium of Italian History From the Fall of the Roman Empire” by Don Giovanni Bosco.)
After the dissolution of the Western [Carolingian] Empire, several kingdoms arose, some smaller, some larger; and while these states were growing up out of the ruins of the Frankish empire, every kingdom divided itself into little states, entitled dukedoms or countships, according as they were governed by dukes or counts. At first, these feudal lords were simply military chieftains, to whom the kings or the emperors had entrusted the government of provinces, and who had taken possession of them by the consent of their superiors. Then, again, there were bishops or abbots of monasteries, who in the name of the Church took possession of the lands or castles which the princes of that time were accustomed to present as alms to the churches or convents, mostly in expiation of their sins. But, in short, all who possessed a little castle, built on a mountain, surmounted by towers, and surrounded by thick walls and a deep moat, became lords of the territory, and regarded themselves as veritable sovereigns of the surrounding country. A habitation of this kind sufficed to render a noble formidable for the space of ten leagues round, because from it he could devastate at his pleasure, by means of his soldiers, all the neighbouring places. The cultivators of the soil, accordingly, in order to make friends with so formidable a neighbour, often went to offer a portion of their produce, on condition that they should not be molested, and that others should be hindered from wasting their fields and crops, or burning their houses.
In this way the husbandmen, too ignorant or incapable to become heads of squadrons, submitted themselves easily to the dominion of the counts, dukes, or marquises, who were possessors of some city or castle defended by armed men. In like manner the weaker, having recourse to the stronger arm, which in case of need could give them protection, confirmed more and more the title of Suzerain which was introduced by Charlemagne; the whole system being termed by him feudalism or vassalage.
While the feudal customs were thus taking root, a fact occurred which proved very calamitous to Italy. Troops of barbarians, descendants of the Huns, who now went by the name of Magiars or Hungarians, invaded Germany and Italy, making frightful devastations. All the endeavours made to repulse them were vain, and they had advanced as far as the Ticino when the lords and vassals offered to bribe them to retire by presenting them with riches of every kind. The barbarians accepted the presents, but ceased none the less from their devastations. But in addition to these invasions, there were also intestine broils throughout Italy. Charlemagne, as we before showed, had appointed generals, to whom he committed the guardianship of the frontiers, with the title of marquis, the lands themselves being termed marches.
Now the lords of Italy, that is, the counts, marquises, and barons, with a view of having some head who could lead them in their wars against the barbarians, and allay the discords which were increasing on every side, held an assembly at Pavia, and elected (A.D. 888) a descendant of Charlemagne called Berengarius, duke of Friuli, to the title of emperor of Italy. But he had scarcely been crowned at Monza with the iron crown, when another king and an intrepid warrior named Guido, duke of Spoleto, was also proclaimed emperor.
It was Berengarius, however, who came into conflict with the Hungarians, on the banks of Brenta, and gained a great victory. Upon this the Hungarians repassed the Adige and asked permission to return quietly to their country; but the Italian barons, proud of their victory, would not permit Berengarius to allow it. The Hungarians then offered anew to retire, restoring all the prisoners and the booty; but this was not enough. They were thus driven to despair, and threw themselves upon the Italians, determined to conquer or to die. The Italians, taken unaware, were cut to pieces, and from that moment never succeeded in keeping the enemy out of the country.
The Italians ought to have shown gratitude to Berengarius, who had done so much to liberate them from the oppression of the barbarians; but instead of this, he was treated by them in a most unworthy manner. The lords conspired against him and constrained him to take refuge with the king of Germany. But new disasters soon recalled him to the throne. As the welfare of the country, however, was at stake, he overlooked all the outrage he had suffered, returned to Italy, and fought victoriously against the Frankish king, Louis. Sixteen years of peace now succeeded, after which he had to struggle with another Frankish king, Rudolph, by whom he was defeated and obliged to shut himself up in Verona.
Berengarius was a valiant and accomplished general, generous in disposition, and ready to pardon injuries. In one of his battles against Rudolph, a certain chief, who had conspired against him, fell into the hands of his soldiers, who brought him before the king, half naked and all smeared with the blood of his murdered countrymen. Berengarius pardoned him, had him re-clothed, and let him free without requiring any oath. But although the generosity of Berengarius redounded to his honour as a Christian man, it was met with the basest ingratitude, as we shall see by the following narration.
A gentleman of Lombardy, called Flambert, who had been loaded with favours by Berengarius, was bribed by his enemies, and in the excess of his wickedness and ingratitude plotted against his life. The emperor, being made cognisant of his designs, might justly have condemned him to death, but thinking he might be able to gain him over by generous conduct, not only pardoned him, but invited him to his palace in Verona, and there having reminded him of the many favours with which he had been loaded, showed him how horrible the deed was which he had plotted against him. He then presented him with a golden cup, which he begged him to accept, saying: ‘Let this cup be the pledge of a sincere reconciliation; every time you use it let it remind you of the affection of your emperor and of the pardon which he has granted you.’ Flambert stood confused before him, but was too wicked to esteem as he ought to have done such goodness. The same evening the emperor, instead of retiring as he was wont to his chamber where he slept surrounded by guards, wished to pass the night in an isolated pavilion in the middle of his garden, removing even the, accustomed guards, to show that he did not experience the least apprehension. Just at daybreak, when Berengarius was leaving the pavilion to go to the church, Flambert appeared accompanied by a number of armed men; and whilst the prince was advancing to salute him kindly, the wretch stabbed him with a dagger, and stretched him dead on the ground. This crime did not long go unpunished, for the assassin soon after perished miserably.
In place of Berengarius, Hugo, duke of Provence, was now elected king of Italy in 926. He had promised the Italians to bring back the golden age, but the event was very different. The iniquities he committed, the tyranny of his government, his avarice in aggravating the burdens laid upon the people, his want of confidence in the Italians, and his preference for foreigners, excited the minds of all against him. Another Berengarius, marquis of Ivrea, descended from Trebbia into Italy with only a few followers, which were afterwards increased by many of the Italians joining them. Hugo, not being able to resist his numerous enemies, returned to Provence, where he died in 947. His son Lothaire dying soon after, Berengarius II. succeeded without opposition to the throne, and was crowned at Pavia in 950, associating his son Adalbert with him in the kingdom. But the barbarous manner in which he treated Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, shutting her up in a tower, excited the compassion of Otho I., emperor of Germany, who really was aspiring to become lord paramount of Italy. Actuated by these different motives, Otho made a descent upon the country, liberated Adelaide, married her, and having assumed the title of king of Italy, returned to Germany.
In the meantime, Berengarius II. had taken refuge in his own marquisate of Ivrea; but wishing to bring about a reconciliation with Otho, he went into Germany with his son Adalbert, and kneeling down before Otho in the presence of the German and Italian lords, acknowledged him as the true and only lord of Italy, yielding him the homage due to a superior, and receiving from him the investiture of the Italian kingdom. By this act Italy again became feudatory, and dependent upon the German crown. Berengarius returning to Italy, soon repented of what he had done, and raising the standard of rebellion against the emperor, prepared an army of 60,000 men. But on the arrival of Otho, they all deserted him, so that Otho advanced without the slightest resistance. Arriving at Milan, he was crowned king of [Italy] by Pope John XII., and afterwards was invested in Rome with the imperial dignity, which from that time forward was never disconnected from the crown of Germany. In this way, Otho was recognised king of Italy by the Italians themselves; and in this way also Italy, which from the end of the Carlovingians in 888 down to the year 961 had been ruled by her own native kings, fell once more under the sceptre of the imperial government.
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