(Extracted from “A Compendium of Italian History From the Fall of the Roman Empire” by Don Giovanni Bosco.)
Thirty years had passed without the German emperors attempting to interfere in the affairs of Italy, when the famous Frederick, surnamed Barbarossa, ascended the imperial throne. He was young, handsome, brave, and prudent, and had not yet abandoned himself to those impulses of pride which afterwards made him abhorred throughout the whole of Italy. Frederick considered that his predecessors had acted a cowardly part in yielding to the pretensions of Gregory VII., and in allowing the reins of the government in Italy to slip from their hands; and now determining, at whatever cost, to regain his right, he made a descent upon Lombardy (in the year 1154) with a numerous army. But becoming aware that the Italians were prepared to offer resistance, he thought it better only at first to seize upon the small cities which were incapable of making any vigorous defence, while those amongst them which had the courage to shut their gates in the face of his army were sacked and burned. This fate fell to the lot of Chieri, Asti, Tortona, and Spoleto.
The Roman pontiff, hearing of the devastation which Frederick was making in Italy, attempted to calm his fury by a friendly treaty, and even offered to place the imperial crown on his head. This condescension of the Pope appeased Frederick for a time, so that he at once left Rome unmolested, and returned to Germany.
The Milanese, on the contrary, had known how to keep their rights intact, for all the young men had flown to arms; and when the war preparations had emptied the public purse, they supplied whatever was necessary from their own resources. In this way the Milanese not only provided for their own safety, but were also in a condition to give aid to the neighbouring places.
The resistance which several of the Italian cities made to the emperor might have induced him not to return, but he was too obstinate in his desire not to subjugate those cities at whatever cost. Three years after, accordingly, he again made a descent upon Lombardy with an immense army, threatened Milan, and obliged the citizens to agree to a treaty in his favour. But soon after he disregarded the terms of the treaty so made, and claimed for himself the power of appointing the governor. This violation of so recent a convention greatly irritated the Milanese, and in their fury they drove away the governor he had appointed, and flew to arms, prepared to face the anger of the emperor or to die for the salvation of their country.
On hearing this, Barbarossa marched against the city with all his forces, but the brave citizens again barred his entrance. The besiegers, repelled from the town, now despoiled the crops in the country, barked the trees, and committed all kinds of depredations. This destructive war inspired the neighbouring inhabitants with great dread; but nevertheless the city of Crema, being in alliance with the Milanese, would not abandon their brethren in the evil day.
Frederick insisted on the inhabitants separating themselves from the Milanese, and putting themselves under his authority ; but they courageously replied that they would rather be buried under the ruins of their houses than fail in their plighted faith to these their brethren. This courageous reply irritated the emperor all the more, and after an heroic defence, Crema was obliged to surrender, not indeed conquered, but betrayed by one of its own citizens. The inhabitants, worn out with famine, got permission to retire to Milan, where they were received with due honour by their allies, while Crema itself was given over by Frederick to be sacked and burned. This took place in the year 1160.
Having reduced the city of Crema to a heap of ruins, the soldiers of Barbarossa invested Milan anew, desiring to reduce it by famine. To that end, besides destroying the produce of the fields, the barbarians cut off the hands of all the countrymen who attempted to introduce grain or fruit into the city. Not less was the horror which prevailed inside the city, where man and beast lay alike perishing in the streets and squares.
The people, thus reduced to despair, refused to obey the magistrates, and demanded that the city should be given up; the consuls vainly urged the citizens to the defence, by describing the revenge which an implacable enemy would now take upon them. Every counsel was vain; the masses, seeing resistance to be impossible, broke out into mutiny, and threatened the lives of the consuls if they persisted any longer in the defence. It was then resolved to make submission to Frederick.
On the 7th of March 1162, the Milanese went out to Lodi to swear fealty to the emperor. The people went in companies, corresponding with the different quarters of the town, the one following the other in silence, and in the midst of the whole procession they conducted the car. This car was a vehicle something like the ark of the Hebrews. A bishop of Milan named Aribert invented it in 1039 to be a centre of union, and to hold together the militia in time of war. The car was heavy, drawn by oxen covered with trappings, on which were worked the arms of the city. It was surmounted by a mast-yard, on the top of which was a gilt apple with two standards, so that it could be seen by the whole army; and in the middle there was erected a crucifix. On the top of the car was seated a trumpeter, who gave the signal for attack or retreat. A company of the bravest soldiers stood round the car to keep guard, and every soldier felt the safety of the car to be a matter of honour. Whether on the move or in the field of battle, the car stood in the midst of the combatants, and the honour of the car was safe as long as it did not fall into the hands of the enemy.
The sacred car, then, having arrived before Frederick, the trumpets sounded for the last time, the flag was lowered before the imperial throne, and the car together with ninety-four standards was given over to the conqueror; whilst all the multitude prostrated themselves, and asked for pardon.
Count Biandrante, one of the Italian lords of Frederick's court, moved with love for his fellow-countrymen, with the hope of calming the indignation of the monarch, took the crucifix in his hand, went forward, and kneeling on the steps of the throne, prayed the emperor in God's name to have pity on the city and the citizens. All were moved to tears; Frederick answered nothing, but without giving any sign of emotion, received the oath of fidelity, chose out four hundred hostages, and then commanded the people to return and throw down the walls and fortifications.
The Milanese, uncertain as to their future destiny, returned trembling to their abodes. Nine days had already passed and they saw nothing of Barbarossa, so that they began to indulge some hope that the emperor had pardoned them, when an order came to the consuls to make all the inhabitants go forth without the walls. It is impossible to express with what tears and cries this fatal sentence was received; but to the conquered they were useless!
They were all thus forced to leave their native place, and you might have seen men, women, and children wandering about like beasts in the fields for many days. Then, as every one was constrained to study his own welfare, and mitigate his own sufferings, they found a retreat, some in Pavia, some in Bergamo, some in Tortona. The city of Milan accordingly became a solitude and a mere heap of ruins.
In the meantime the emperor arrived at Milan with his army, and condemned the city to total destruction, and the very name to be blotted out. Six whole days the work of destruction continued. Milan became a heap of stones. It is even said that the plough was passed over it, and salt sprinkled around in sign of sterility and malediction. The soldiers taken by Frederick from the allied Italian cities aided to complete this cruel vengeance, and took occasion to give vent in this way to their hatred against a city which years before had ruined Lodi and Como.
I may here remark that these Italians were both wicked and foolish to lend themselves to the work of destruction, through hatred of their brethren. Vengeance is always blameable, but this was a terrible example to men not to abuse their power and authority to oppress the weak; because there is a Divine Providence which disposes the lot of mankind, and mostly causes the oppressor to pay dearly in the end for the iniquity perpetrated against the poor and oppressed.
Last Actions of Frederick Barbarossa — League of Verona — League of Lombardy
After the defeat of Milan, Italy suffered more and more from the oppression of Frederick and the imposts of his ministers. But this state of violence could not last. The cities of Verona, Vicenza, Padua, and Trevigi began to unite themselves in a league to oppose the progress of Frederick. In order to stamp out this first symptom of rebellion, he quitted Pavia with a large number of soldiers; but no sooner did he approach Verona than he saw a confederate army, more numerous than his own, drawn up against him. Fearing therefore to give battle, he withdrew his troops, and after a while left for Germany. The example of the Veronese infused courage into all the other cities. Cremona, Bergamo, Mantua, Brescia, and Ferrara came into the league, swearing to defend themselves against the imperial tyranny, and determining to rebuild Milan and bring back the dispersed citizens to their former home. In this way the city again arose out of its ruins, and that in a comparatively short period.
It was during the absence of the emperor that an army, led by his lieutenant, besieged Ancona, then placed under the protection of the Eastern Empire. But Ancona having received reinforcements, the besiegers, after a long effort, were obliged to raise the siege, just when the valorous inhabitants were being reduced to the very extremity of famine. While all these cities were associating themselves with the Lombard league, Pavia kept faith with the emperor. In order to spite this city, the confederates determined to build another within a short distance and surround it with every kind of military defence. For this purpose they chose a beautiful site surrounded by three rivers, and obliging the neighbouring population to remove there, they erected in 1168 a city termed Alessandria, so named from Pope Alexander III., the then head of the league. As the hurry was great, and the materials scanty, the roofs of the houses were covered with straw, from which circumstance the city was called Alessandria della Paglia. It was at the same time fortified with excellent bastions and deep trenches, and so great was the concourse of people who came to live there, that within a short time they were able to furnish 15,000 armed men.
Frederick, advised of the formation of the Lombard league and the preparations for war which were being made, collected a very numerous army and marched once more into Italy. All the passes were valiantly contested by the Italians, and none remained open except that of Susa. Accordingly, he passed over Mont Cenis, burned the city of Susa, conquered Asti, which was already rising from its ruins, and marched upon Alessandria. The new city defended itself four months without receiving any succour from the other allies. But at last, the league sent a powerful subsidy to the besieged, and Frederick was obliged to raise the siege. For five long years he carried on the war, and endeavoured to bring the Italians into subjection; but they were too many and too obstinate to be easily subdued. Often it came to pass that on one day he conquered and on the next was himself discomfited. Finally, a new army of Germans arrived to the emperor's assistance. Then the Milanese, aided by a number of select troops, went out to meet him at Legnano, on the road which leads from Milan to Lake Como. The brave Italians, seeing the enemy advance, knelt down to pray for victory, and rose up determined to conquer or to die. After an obstinate combat, victory declared itself for the allies; Frederick himself fell from his carriage fighting, and with difficulty escaped to Pavia, where he was believed to have been killed.
These strokes of adverse fortune proved to Frederick that all his efforts would be useless, so that he determined at all costs to reconcile himself with the Roman pontiff, and to come to treaty with the Lombard league. For this purpose he sent deputies to the Pope to beg for peace and absolution, promising that he would disown the Antipope whom he had so foolishly set up.
The Pope being assured of the sincerity of the emperor, went voluntarily to Benevento, where the king of Sicily sent a good detachment of soldiers to defend him, and in case of need to give him an honourable escort to Venice, where the conference between the emperor and the allies was to take place. The Pope refused to make any provisions without the other cities of the league participating in them, and for this purpose he proceeded to Ferrara. There he called together the patriarch of Venice, the archbishops of Ravenna and Milan, with many other bishops, marquises, counts, and all those who held any civil or ecclesiastical authority. The Pope having thus brought all these together into the church of St. George, together with an immense crowd of people, pronounced the following discourse :—My dear sons, you are well aware of the persecution which the Church has suffered on the part of the very prince who above every one was bound to defend it, and you doubtless lament over the rapine, the destruction of churches, the incendiaries, the homicides, and the deluge of crime—all which are the inevitable results of discord and impiety. Heaven has allowed free course to these fearful disasters for the space of eighteen years; but now, at length, it has calmed the storm, has touched the heart of the emperor, and has induced him to sue for peace. Can we fail to recognise in all this a miracle of the divine omnipotence, especially when we see a priest, disarmed, and bent down as I am under the weight of years, triumphing over the German obstinacy, and conquering a formidable prince even without making war?' He then explained that he would not accept any conditions of peace without the participation of the allies, and praised the religious courage with which they had defended the Church.
The allies, excited by the eloquent words of the Pope, broke out into lively and prolonged applause, praising his desire to bring peace to the country, and promising to second him in everything. From Ferrara the Pope returned to Venice, where he established a truce for six years, after which a treaty of peace was concluded in the city of Custanza, in which the emperor ceded to the communes the right of levying armies, of confederation for mutual defence, of administering justice, and of electing consuls.
Then the emperor, having rendered due honour to the Pope, publicly declared that, led astray by evil counsels, he had combated the Church in the belief of defending it; that he thanked God for having brought him to see his error; that he, therefore, most sincerely abandoned the Antipope and his followers, and recognised Alexander as the legitimate pontiff, successor of St. Peter, and vicar of Jesus Christ. Frederick was accordingly absolved from excommunication and from his other sins, and received the communion from the hands of the Pope. Things being thus settled, Frederick returned into Germany.
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